My Top Ten Revision Tips – How to Boost Your Memory
1. Smell your way to success.Research into the Proust phenomenon indicates that olfaction could be a useful tool in building strong, long lasting and detailed memories (Chu & Downes, 2000). Suf…
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My Top Ten Revision Tips – How to Boost Your Memory
1. Smell your way to success.
Research into the Proust phenomenon indicates that olfaction could be a useful tool in building strong, long lasting and detailed memories (Chu & Downes, 2000). Sufferers of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) claim that odours have the ability to trigger autobiographical memories of traumatic experiences, the intensity of which are deemed stronger than visual or auditory triggers (Vermetten & Bremner, 2003). Toffolo and colleagues suggest that olfactory memories are strong due to the location of the olfactory bulb (Toffolo, Smeets, & van den Hout, 2003). The olfactory bulb is contained within the limbic system which is associated with learning and memory. Repeated exposure of a single scent to a module results in an association between the scent and the behaviour, thus potentially triggering a detailed recall during exams.
In order to manipulate olfactory memory a studying student could carry a scented hanky to smell while studying or revising and then again in the exam. This method of revision may be particularly helpful when studying a degree with overlapping modules – such as a psychology degree.
2. Get your heart beating faster
Aerobic exercise is widely established as essential for everyday health; however a recent study suggests that cognition can benefit from such activity (Aguiar et al., 2001). Aguiar and colleagues were able to demonstrate the positive effects of exercise on healthy participant’s memories. Other research suggests that improvements can be demonstrated after 3 minutes of intense aerobic exercise prior to studying (Winter et al., 2007). During aerobic exercise the heart beat increases causing increased oxygen consumption, this signals for the production and secretion of the protein BDNF (brain derived neurotrophic factor). BDNF encourages the formation and growth of neurons and neural pathways within the cortex and hippocampus, thus strengthening long-term memory (LTM) (Huang, & Reichardt, 2001).
The student is instructed to take part in aerobic exercise before revision, lectures and indeed exams to boost memory, recall and overall cognitive health.
3.Engage your brain.
Interhemispheric interaction could strengthen episodic memory according to Christman (2003). Christman and colleagues continue to state that episodic memory recall is dependent upon an interaction between the medial temporal lobes. Increased retrieval of episodic memories can be achieved through a technique of saccadic bilateral eye movements. The eye movements are thought to simultaneously activate the hemispheres and aid in the retrieval of long term memories (Parker, & Dagnall, 2012).
For maximum recall during an exam it is recommended that the student engages in the aforementioned eye movements when trying to recall information from a specific lecture. The student would have greater success if the revision also took place in the same place as the original lecture due to the content of memory which is available through episodic memory.
4.Flash your way to success
In order for students to pass exams they must remember lots of information from lectures and books, it is important for the information to be stored within the LTM. There are many learning techniques to acquire lasting knowledge. Arguably one of the most successful techniques is the Leitner system (Fuchs, 1997). The Leitner system is also referred to as spaced repetition. As the name suggests information is presented on flashcards at designated intervals to optimise retention of information. The success of the technique is repetition. The information which is not held within the LTM will continue to be presented until the storage of the information. Information which is held within the LTM is continued to be shown to prevent the forgetting of material as described in the learning curve (Ebbinghaus, 1885/1913, as cited in Wozniak, 1999).
To prevent forgetting learned material, revision tip number 4 advises students to continually read and reread work. Repetition is paramount for transferring knowledge into the LTM. Flash cards provide structure in learning and aid repetition ensuring acquired knowledge remains so.
5. Eat yourself smart.
The adult human brain requires at least 400 calories per day to function efficiently. A healthy diet rich in essential fats, proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals is essential for good brain health. Studies have indicated that a diet high in flavonoids (berries, chocolate) is particular beneficial for memory and creative thinking (Messerli, 2012). Spencer (2008) posits flavonoids have been shown to effectively improve memory through specific cell signalling interactions, named the MAPK pathway which has shown to be an important factor in LTM. Omega-3 oils are crucial for the production of myelin which insulates axons and allows for speedy neural connectivity.
Eating a well balanced diet and ensuring daily calories are consumed is essential for brain power – particularly around the exam period. Finally eating a little bit of chocolate is good for you so enjoy it!
6. Get together
You cannot tell someone something that you don’t know! Trying to describe a theory or concept is a great way to test your own knowledge of a subject (Hendry, Frommer, & Walker, 1999). Discussing information with others and learning from a different perspective aids understanding and creates new connections to known knowledge. The more triggers for a memory stored in the LTM the more likely recall will be successful (Lage, Platt, & Treglia, 2000). Moreover auditory information is stored and retrieved from working memory with greater ease than after reading visual text (Moreno & Maye, 1999).
Study groups are a great way to cement new information. Revision tip number 6 suggests tapping into your auditory sense, listen and describe!
7. Think crude, rude and outrageously.
It could be argued the best way of etching information into the brain is to learn under an extreme state of emotional arousal (either positive or negative) (McGaugh, 2004). This is because the amygdala acts as a mediating structure for emotional learning, connecting with other memory forming structures such as the prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus (LaBar, & Cabeza, 2006). Connecting new information with an emotional trigger results in better remembering. Emotive pictures, rhymes or words can transform meaningless words into easy to remember rhymes. This type of learning is named a mnemonic learning device. Schools teach children to use mnemonic to help to remember lists in a particular order such as Naughty Elephants Squirt Water/North East South West. The fun, familiar sentence evokes the emotion of humour which helps the children recall the new harder to remember words.
By applying mnemonics with emotion could be considered one of the best strategies for successful learning.
8. Take a cat-nap
Optimum sleep proves to be an effective revision tool. Sleep deprivation effects cognitive abilities, which include encoding, storage and retrieval of information (Chee, & Choo, 2004). Sleeping soon after studying allows the brain to reinforce its memory traces (Marshall, Mölle, Hallschmid & Born, 2004). Antony and colleagues (2012) hypothesize that during a period of sleep memories are transferred into more suitable areas of the brain for permanent storage. A recent study claims that a 6-minute nap is the optimum time required to give your memory a boost (Antony, Gobel, O’Hare, Reber, & Paller, 2012)
An afternoon cat-nap after a lecture could therefore help in processing some of the newly acquired data and aid the brains ability to find a suitable place to keep it.
9. Stay away from Facebook
Recently numerous studies are warning students to avoid Facebook when trying to revise and/study. Kirschner, and Karpinski (2012) observed a negative correlation between Facebook use and exam grades. The study’s results suggest that the more Facebook time you have the less time you study – resulting in lower academic grades. Furthermore a secondary problem with Facebook use was determined as lack of attention to task. Attention significantly effects memory. Flicking between Facebook and academic work causes that student to lose focus of the task at hand, consequently the revision which takes place is not adequate for the material to be absorbed into the brain, although this is disputed (Pasek, More, , & Hargittai, 2009)
In short the use of social networking sites and the internet in general (excluding research) is unadvisable until study time is over.
10. If the first nine tips do not work – you could postpone your studies!
Memory capability could soon be increased by 50 per cent. Currently Simmons and colleagues amongst other are working on memory wonder-drugs which could soon be on the market as human clinical trials are currently in process (Simmons, Rex, Pandyarajan, Fedulov, Gall, & Lynch, 2009). The medication acts as an agonist by increasing the post synaptic membrane. Boosting dendrites increases the post synaptic surface area for the neurotransmitter to bond with. The overall effect would be easier memory storage and recall.
References
Aguiar Jr. A. S., Castro, A. A., Moreira, E. L., Glaser, V., Santos, A. R. S., Tasca, C. I., & Prediger, R. D. S. (2011). Short bouts of mild-intensity physical exercise improve spatial learning and memory in aging rats: Involvement of hippocampal plasticity via AKT, CREB and BDNF signaling. Journal of Mechanisms of Ageing and Development 132(11), 560-567. doi: 10.1016/j.mad.2011.09.005. ISSN: 0047-6374.
Antony, J. W., Gobel, E. W., O’Hare, J. K., Reber, P. J., & Paller, K. A. (2012). Cued memory reactivation during sleep influences skill learning. Nature Neuroscience, 15(8), 1114-1116.
Chee, M. W., & Choo, W. C. (2004). Functional imaging of working memory after 24 hr of total sleep deprivation. The Journal of Neuroscience, 24(19), 4560-4567
Christman, S. D., Garvey, K. J., Propper, R. E., & Phaneuf, K. A. (2003). Bilateral eye movements enhance the retrieval of episodic memories. Journal of Neuropsychology, 17(2), 221-229. doi: 10.1037/0894-4105.17.2.221.
Chu, S., & Downes, J. J. (2000). Odour-evoked autobiographical memories: Psychological investigations of Proustian phenomena. Journal of Chemical Senses, 25, 111–116.
Devore, E. E., Kang, J. H., Breteler, M. M. B., & Grodstein, F. (2012). Dietary intakes of berries and flavonoids in relation to cognitive decline. ANNALS of Neurology, 72, 135–143. doi: 10.1002/ana.23594
Fuchs, A. H. (1997). Ebbinghaus’s contributions to psychology after 1885. American Journal of Psychology, 110(4), 621-634. doi: 10.2307/1423413.
Hendry. G. D., Frommer, M., & Walker, R. A. (1999). Constructivism and problem-based learning. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 23, 359-371.
Huang, E. J., & Reichardt, L. F. (2001). “Neurotrophins: Roles in Neuronal Development and Function”. Annual. Revew of Neuroscience, 24, 677–736. doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.677.
Kirschner, P. A., & Karpinski, A. C. (2010). Facebook® and academic performance. Computers in Human Behaviour, 26(6), 1237-1245. doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.03.024.
Kramár, E. A., Babayan, A. H., Gavin, C. F., Cox, C. D., Jafari, M., Gall, C. M., & Lynch, G. (2012). Synaptic evidence for the efficacy of spaced learning.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(13), 5121-5126.
LaBar, K. S., Cabeza, R. (2006). Cognitive neuroscience of emotional memory. National Review of Neuroscience, 7, 54–64. doi: 10.1038/nrn1825
Lage, M. J., Platt, G. J., & Treglia, M. (2000). Inverting the classroom: A gateway to creating an inclusive learning environment. The Journal of Economic Education, 31(1), 30-43.
Marshall, L., Mölle, M., Hallschmid, M., & Born, J. (2004). Transcranial direct current stimulation during sleep improves declarative memory. The Journal of neuroscience, 24(44), 9985-9992.
McGaugh, J. L. (2004). The amygdala modulates the consolidation of memories of emotionally arousing experiences. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 27, 1-28. doi: 10.1146/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144157.
Messerli, F. H. (2012). Chocolate Consumption, Cognitive Function, and Nobel Laureates. New England Journal of Medicine, 367, 1562-1564. doi: 10.1056/NEJMon1211064
Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (1999) Cognitive principles of multimedia learning: The role of modality and contiguity. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(2), 358-368. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.91.2.358
Parker, A., & Dagnall, N. (2012). Effects of saccadic bilateral eye movements on memory in children and adults: An exploratory study. Journal of Brain & Cognition, 78(3), 238-247. doi: 10.1016/j.bandc.2008.05.009.
Pasek, J., More, E., & Hargittai, E. (2009). Facebook and academic performance: Reconciling a media sensation with data. First Monday, 14(5).
Simmons, D. A., Rex, C. S., Pandyarajan, V., Fedulov, V., Gall, C. M & Lynch, G. (2009) Up-regulating BDNF with an ampakine rescues synaptic plasticity and memory in Huntington’s disease knockin mice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106(12), 4906-11.
Spencer, J. P. E. (2008). Food for thought. The impact of dietary flavonoids on memory, learning and neuro-cognitive performance. Proceed. Nutr. Soc. 67, 238-52
Toffolo. M. B. J., Smeets, M. A. M., & van den Hout, M. A. (2003). Proust revisited: Odours as triggers of aversive memories. Journal of Cognition & Emotion, 26, 83-92. doi:10.1080/02699931.2011.555475
Vermetten, E., & Bremner, J. D. (2003). Olfaction as a traumatic reminder in posttraumatic stress disorder: Case reports and review. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 64, 202–207. doi: 10.4088/JCP.v64n0214
Winter, B., Breitenstein, C., Mooren, F. C., Voelker, K., Fobker, M., Lechtermann, A., & Knecht, S. (2007). High impact running improves learning. Journal of Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 87, 597-609. doi: 10.1016/j.nlm.2006.11.003. ISSN: 1074-7427.
Wozniak, R. H. (1999). Introduction to memory: Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885/1913). Classics in the history of psychology. Retrieved http:/ /psychclassics. yorku. ca/ Ebbinghaus/ wozniak.htm
The truth about Sex
Super interesting if you’re interested of the female orgasm
The Truth about the Female Orgasm
The psychology of our lasting love
On the 8th of August my partner and I celebrated our fifteen year anniversary. We had planned to drive over to Blackpool for a weekend away once my partner had finished work. Whilst I waited for his shift to end I began to discuss with one of his colleagues ‘how difficult it was not to rush over and give him a big hug and kiss’, I told her that ‘he was my best friend and that I had missed him all day, that I had felt anxious and had a strong desire to be in physical contact with him, despite only seeing him that morning’. She said ‘wow, it is very rare to still have those feelings after so long together’. During the long drive to our weekend retreat I began to ponder her words: What was the secret to our lasting and…
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The psychology of our lasting love
On the 8th of August my partner and I celebrated our fifteen year anniversary. We had planned to drive over to Blackpool for a weekend away once my partner had finished work. Whilst I waited for his shift to end I began to discuss with one of his colleagues ‘how difficult it was not to rush over and give him a big hug and kiss’, I told her that ‘he was my best friend and that I had missed him all day, that I had felt anxious and had a strong desire to be in physical contact with him, despite only seeing him that morning’. She said ‘wow, it is very rare to still have those feelings after so long together’. During the long drive to our weekend retreat I began to ponder her words: What was the secret to our lasting and loving relationship, I wondered why we were so different when research suggests that relationship breakdowns are the most common among people who grew up in a divorced household, are from a low socio-economic group and who are young partners (Duck, 1988) all of which describe my partner and I, and yet we are still happy and very much in love.
Love can be explained by dividing it into two very basic categories; romantic and companionate (Hatfield, 1988). Romantic love has been described as having similar physiological effects as alcohol or marijuana (Baumeister, 1991) causing feelings of anxiety, jealousy, elation, altruism and joy, all overwhelming the senses at once (Bersceid & Walster, 1978). These feelings of intense and often uncontrollable emotions are short lived and in most successful relationships companionate love takes over (Caspi & Herbener, 1990; Hatfeild, 1988; Neimeyer, 1984). It could be suggested that our relationship has reached the pinnacle of Sternberg’s triangle of love model; consummate love (Sternberg & Barns, 1988). My partner could be described as my best friend –who I find extremely sexually attractive, yet at home we are a team; sharing money, childcare and the household chores. Sternberg believes that for a relationship to reach the deepest state of love there must be intimacy, passion and commitment: all of which describe our relationship. Our commitment to each other began when our parents tried to keep us apart as young lovers: The Romeo-and-Juliet effect (Driscoll, Davis & Lipetz, 1972). Until only recently I was unaccepted into my partners’ family, rather than this having a negative effect to the relationship it seems to have brought us closer together.
From our early beginnings we have been close friends who ensured that our lives were entwined as though we are one. This companionate side to our relationship could be defined in evolutionary terms as a bond which would greatly improve the chances of our offspring surviving (Hazan, Campa, & Gur-Yaish, 2006; Fletcher, 2002). Our relationship roles could play an important role in the success of our lasting relationship too, as Murstein’s (1976; 1986; 1987) stimulus-value-role theory suggests: Relationships invariantly pass through three stages; stimulus stage-when initial attraction is based on physical attributes as Green, Buchanan and Heuer (1984) agree, the value stage-when similarity and values become important with supporting research from Kandel (1978), Tesser, Cambell and smith (1984), and finally the role stage emphasises the importance of commitment and the acquiring of supporting roles. The roles which each of us has taken complement the other well and yield great rewards within the relationship, according to social exchange theory our relationship benefits because we are well matched in our abilities to reward the other partner, or at the very least we believe that no one could reward us as well as our current partner (Thibaut & Kelley, 1959). Homans (1974) goes further to say that we judge our feelings about the relationship in terms id the reward less the cost: The higher the emotional profit, the happier the relationship.
In conclusion, I would like to suggest that each theory and model in part can explain elements to our relationship, but there is not one single theory which can explain why we are still together and in love fully, highlighting the very complicated nature of love and modern relationships. However, the best description for the love I feel for my partner comes from Fromm’s (1962) description of true-love: True-love being defined as a giving love. Mike (my very much adored partner) and I are a communal couple who as Clark and Mills (1979) posit give out of love and concern and not to receive, perhaps this is the reason why we remain blissfully happy.
References
Baumeister, R. (1991). Meaning of Life. New York: Guilford Press
Bersceid, E., & Walster, E.M. (1978). Interpersonal attraction (second edition) Reading, MA: Adison-Wesley.
Caspi, A., & Herbener, E. S. (1990). Continuity and change: Assortative marriage and the consistency of personality in adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58(2), 250.
Clark, M. S., & Mills, J. (1979). Interpersonal attraction in exchange and communal relationships. Journal of personality and social psychology, 37(1), 12.
Clark, M. S., & Mils, J. (1993). The difference between communal and exchange relationships: What it is and is not. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19(6), 684-691.
Driscoll, R., Davis, K. E., & Lipetz, M. E. (1972). Parental interference and romantic love: The Romeo and Juliet effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24(1), 1.
Duck, S. (1988). Relating to others. Dorsey Press.
Fletcher, G. (2008). The new science of intimate relationships. Wiley. com.
Green, S. K., Buchanan, D. R., & Heuer, S. K. (1984). Winners, Losers, and Choosers A Field Investigation of Dating Initiation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 10(4), 502-511.
Hatfield, E. (1988). Passionate and compassionate love.
Homans, G. C. (1974). Social behaviour: Its elementary forms. Taylor & Francis.
Kandel, D. B. (1978). Similarity in real-life adolescent friendship pairs. Journal of personality and social psychology, 36(3), 306.
Murstein, B. I. (1977). The stimulus-value-role (SVR) theory of dyadic relationships. Theory and practice in interpersonal attraction, 105-127.
Murstein, B. I. (1986). Paths to marriage. Newbury Park, California: Sage publications.
Murstein, B. I. (1987). A clarification and extension of the SVR theory of dyadic pairing. Journal of Marriage and Family, 49(4), 929-933.
Neimeyer, G. J. (1984). Cognitive complexity and marital satisfaction. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 2(3), 258-263.
Sternberg, R. J., & Barnes, M. L. (Eds.). (1988). The psychology of love. Yale University Press.
Tesser, A., Campbell, J., & Smith, M. (1984). Friendship choice and performance: Self-evaluation maintenance in children. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46(3), 561.
Thibaut, J. W., & Kelley, H. H. (1959). The social psychology of groups.
The Female Orgasm: The Light Switch of Love?
Welcome to my third and final instalment of the series titled The Female Orgasm. If you have been following my two previous blogs, you will by now, be very aware that orgasm as a reward is the single most reported incentive which motivates sexual intercourse (SI) (Deckers, 2010). The evidence presented has shown that both males and females rate orgasm as their primary reason for engaging in SI (Meston & Buss, 2007; Deckers, 2010). My previous blog Nice… But Not Needed established that women aged 18-22 rated ‘feelings of romantic love’ as the second biggest motivator of SI (Meston & Buss, 2007). Thinking back further to Her Incentive… or His we saw evidence that women were not reaching orgasm during 92% of copulations (Lloyd, 2005). As so many women fail to reach orgasm during SI and despite that being their primary motivator it seems clear that feelings of love must drive behaviour much more than the women in the studies are actually aware of. The primary aims of the present blog are to uncover what romantic love is, to find evidence of its existence and to conclude with evidence which could shed light on why romantic love is such a potent motivator for SI.
‘I love my mum’, ‘I love my children’, ‘I love my new partner and all the great sex we are having’: three plausible sentences to an English speaker, but if the reader were asked to write down a definition that could be applied to all three sentences – he would struggle claims Sukel (2012). In 1996 thirty-eight credible neurobiologists penned the first accepted scientific definition of love “Love is a lifelong learning process that starts with the relationship of the infant to his or her mother and the gradual withdrawal from the mother with a search for emotional comfort and fulfilment” McEwen (1997). Upon the definition being revealed during a presentation named Is There a Neurobiology of Love? a flurry of neuroscientists began looking into the brain to see if love was an observable entity. Most notably came a study from Bartles and Zeki (2000) which sought to identify which areas of the brain are activated when participants were shown a photograph of their partner –who they claimed to be very much in love with- as compared with a photograph of a friend who was the same sex as their lover. Seventeen participants of mixed gender were placed into an fMRI-scanner and shown the photographs. The neural activity which could be attributed to recognition was discounted and the scientists were left with what could be the neural blueprint of romantic love. The strongest activation was seen in the left middle insular, an area which governs self awareness, emotion and inter-personal relationships; the anterior cingulated cortex also showed a strong activation, an area linked to decision making, reward anticipation and emotion. Activation was also seen in areas involved in learning and memory such as the hippocampus, caudate nucleus, nucleus accumbens and putamen. In a second study Fisher, Aron, Mashek and Brown (2002) asked ‘in-love’ participants to think about their loved one in a non-sexual way, the activation overlapped with findings from the Bartles and Zeki study. Fisher suggests that for the first time scientists are seeing ‘what romantic love looks like’ (Fisher, 2002).
Romantic love has similar neural activation as that seen with cocaine posits Zeki (as cited in Sukel, 2012). A dose of cocaine is known to have an effect on the neural reward pathways in the brain and cause the individual to ‘crave’ more (Linden, 2011). The same pattern could be true of romantic love hypothesise Aron and Aron (1991). Romantic love has been shown in numerous studies to engage the motivational system (Brown 1992; Lidsky, & Brown, 1999), this includes the neural systems which are associated with ‘motivation to acquire a reward’ in contrast to the previous consideration that romantic love was an emotion (Bartles & Zeki, 2000). If romantic love is not an emotion but is in fact a goal oriented state, we can describe romantic love as a motivational drive much the same as hunger or thirst. Being motivated to engaging in SI by the lure of feelings of romantic love can now be understood in scientific terms as a strong incentive. Interestingly when comparing the activation seen in orgasm and romantic love there appear similarities. During orgasm the nucleus accumbens, the area of the brain implicated strongly in romantic love and the hippocampus, known for its involvement with memory becomes activated. Fisher (2002) hypotheses that orgasm may in fact contribute to falling in love and strengthen pair bonding.
In conclusion love can now be identified as a lifelong learning process which scientists are now able to observe and measure using the very latest neuroimaging techniques. However study findings which rely on neuroimaging measures are bound by measurement limitations such as time and accuracy. Nevertheless, scientists are in agreement that a brain which is in romantic love shows neural activation very similar to the neural activation of cocaine. Recent studies are hinting at the possibility that romantic love is a powerful motivational drive, which is responsible for motivating SI in younger females at the very least. Many more studies are required on the area of sexual motivation before scientists can show that orgasm and romantic love are inexplicitly linked.
References
Aron, A., & Aron, E.N. (1991) Love and sexuality. Sexuality in Close Relationships, 25–48.
Bartles, A. & Zeki, S. (2000). The neural basis of romantic love. Neuroreport, 11(17), 3829-3834.
Brown, L. L. (1992). Somatotopic organization in rat striatum: evidence for a combinational map.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 89(16), 7403-7407. Retrieved from http://www.pnas.org/content/89/16/7403.short
Deckers, L. (2010). Motivation: Biological, Psychological, and Environmental. Allyn and Bacon.
Fisher, H..E. (1998) Lust, attraction, and attachment in mammalian reproduction. Human Nature 9: 23–52.
Fisher, H.E, Aron, A, Mashek, D. Li. H, & Brown, L.L. (2002). Defining the brain systems of lust, romantic attraction, and attachment. Archives of Sexual Behaviour, 31(5), 413-419
Lidsky, T. I., & Brown, L. L. (1999). Behavioural context and a distributed system: Metabolic mapping studies of the basal ganglia. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue canadienne de psychologie expérimentale,53(1), 35.
Linden, D. J. (2011).The Compass of Pleasure: How Our Brains Make Fatty Foods, Orgasm, Exercise, Marijuana, Generosity, Vodka, Learning, and Gambling Feel So Good. Penguin. com.
Lloyd, E.F. (2005). The Case of the Female Orgasm: Bias in the Science of Evolution. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
McEwen, B. (1997). Meeting report: Is there a neurobiology of love? Molecular Psychiatry, 2(1), 15-16.
Meston, C. M., & Buss, D. M. (2007). Why humans have sex. Archives of Sexual Behavior,;36(4), 477-507. Retrieved from http://www.homepage.psy.utexas.edu/HomePage/Group/BussLAB/pdffiles/why%20humans%20have%20sex%202007.pdf
Sukel, K. (2012). Dirty Minds: How Our Brains Influence Love, Sex and Relationships. Free Press. NY
The Psychology of Love, Sex, Orgasms and more 
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